The Chandrayaan program is India's lunar exploration initiative, consisting of Chandrayaan-1, 2, and 3. Chandrayaan-1 (2008) mapped the Moon and discovered water molecules. Chandrayaan-2 (2019) aimed for a soft landing, but only the orbiter succeeded. Chandrayaan-3 (2023) achieved a successful soft landing near the south pole, deploying the Vikram lander and Pragyan rover for scientific experiments, advancing India's lunar exploration efforts. 

This article supports UPSC examination preparation by covering the details of Chandrayaan Mission 1, Chandrayaan Mission 2, Chandrayaan Mission 3, and Chandrayaan Mission 4, including their objectives, future missions, impacts, and significance, which are useful for both the preliminary exam and mains exam.

The Chandrayaan Mission is India's lunar exploration program, led by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It aims to study the Moon's surface, mineral composition, and potential water ice deposits. The program includes Chandrayaan-1 (2008), which discovered water molecules on the Moon, Chandrayaan-2 (2019), which attempted a soft landing but faced challenges, and Chandrayaan-3 (2023), which successfully landed near the lunar south pole. 

Objectives of Chandrayaan Mission

The Chandrayaan Mission aims to explore the Moon, analyse its surface, detect water molecules, demonstrate soft landings, and enhance India’s space technology capabilities. 

• Lunar Exploration: Study the Moon's surface, mineral composition, and geological structure.
• Water Detection: Confirm the presence of water molecules in lunar soil.
• Soft Landing Demonstration: Test and achieve controlled landings on the Moon.
• Rover Deployment: Deploy rovers for in-situ scientific experiments.
• Technological Advancements: Enhance India's capabilities in space navigation and exploration.
• Data Collection: Gather crucial insights for future lunar missions.
• Global Collaboration: Contribute to international lunar research efforts.

Importance & Benefits

• The Moon’s pristine environment aids research in planetary formation
• Supports future space travel and exoplanet exploration
• Positions India as the 4th nation to land on the Moon
• Boosts national pride, inspires youth, and encourages scientific innovation
• Strengthens India’s manufacturing industry with high-precision components
• Encourages entrepreneurship in the space sector
• Women-led mission: Ritu Kridhal & M Vanitha played key roles

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Chandryaan Mission 1

Chandrayaan-1 suggests possible rusting at the Moon's poles. Launched in 2008 by ISRO, the mission's Mineralogy Mapper (M3) detected hematite (Fe₂O₃), an iron oxide requiring oxygen and water to form, despite the Moon lacking both. NASA recently found higher metal concentrations, including iron and titanium, beneath the lunar surface.

Possible Reasons for Lunar Rusting

Scientists propose that Earth's oxygen may contribute to hematite formation. Earth's magnetotail transports oxygen to the Moon while blocking 99% of solar wind, which contains hydrogen. Since hydrogen prevents rusting by adding electrons, its reduction during certain orbital phases may facilitate hematite formation.

Chandrayaan Missions & Global Lunar Efforts

• Chandrayaan-3 aimed for a 2021 launch, following Chandrayaan-2, which hard-landed in 2019. Unlike Chandrayaan-2, it lacked an orbiter and focused on landing.
• NASA's Artemis Program plans a Moon landing in 2024 with the first woman and the next man on the lunar surface.
• India's Gaganyaan Mission seeks to send a three-member crew into space for 5–7 days in honour of India's 75th Independence anniversary.

Chandrayaan -1 & Key Discoveries

India's first Moon mission, Chandrayaan-1 (2008), focused on orbiting and surface mapping. It operated for 312 days, achieving 95% of objectives, and confirmed:

• Lunar water molecules
• Lunar caves formed by lava flows
• Past tectonic activity and meteorite impact features

Scientific Impact & Future Research

These discoveries reshape knowledge of lunar polar regions, suggesting Earth’s influence on the Moon’s surface evolution. Further studies are needed to understand water interactions with lunar rock, which could hold critical clues for future Moon exploration.

Chandryaan Mission 2

India launched Chandrayaan-2 on July 22, 2019, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, marking its second lunar exploration mission. It features an orbiter, lander, and rover, aiming for a soft landing on September 7, 2019—ISRO's first attempt to land on an extraterrestrial surface.

Background

Initially planned in 2007 in partnership with Russia’s ROSCOSMOS, the mission was delayed due to Russia’s inability to develop the lander. India later independently developed the mission and successfully launched Chandrayaan-2 aboard GSLV MK III M1, aspiring to become the fourth nation to soft-land on the Moon.

Chandrayaan -2: Mission Design

An integrated spacecraft weighing 3,877 kg, Chandrayaan-2 consists of:

• Orbiter (2,379 kg) studying the Moon’s surface and water distribution for 1 year
• Lander (Vikram) analyses the lunar atmosphere and seismic activity
• Rover (Pragyan) crawling on the surface to examine composition and element distribution

The mission sequence involves Earth manoeuvres, trans-lunar injection, lunar burns, lander separation, descent, and rover deployment.

Mission Challenges

Chandrayaan-2 involved complex developments, including:

• Launching India's heaviest rocket (GSLV Mk III)
• Ensuring trajectory accuracy for precise Moon arrival
• Landing safely amid extreme temperature variations, craters, dust, and solar radiation
• Managing low sunlight exposure at the South Pole, which affects solar-powered instruments
• Narrow margin for error, as seen in Israel’s recent lunar landing failure

Chandrayaan-3 

India's Chandrayaan-3 mission marks a historic milestone, achieving the first-ever soft landing near the Moon's south pole. This success strengthens India's leadership in space exploration, paving the way for future advancements.

Overview

Launched on July 14, 2023, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Chandrayaan-3 entered lunar orbit on August 5, 2023, and successfully landed on August 23, 2023. It is India's third lunar mission and second attempt at a soft landing.

Mission Components

ISRO Moon Mission Chandrayaan 3 consists of:

• Propulsion Module: Carries the lander and rover to 100 km lunar orbit, equipped with SHAPE payload to study Earth's spectral properties
• Lander Module (Vikram): Conducts thermal, seismic, and plasma density studies
• Rover Module (Pragyan): Analyses lunar surface composition using APXS and LIBS instruments

Major Findings

• Unexpected Lunar Surface Temperature: ChaSTE recorded 70°C, exceeding predictions
• Elemental Confirmation: Pragyan's LIBS detected Sulfur, Aluminium, Calcium, Iron, Chromium, Titanium, Manganese, Silicon, and Oxygen

Challenges in India's Space Program

• Budget Constraints: India’s space budget is 0.05% of GDP, compared to 0.25% in the US
• Technological Gaps: Reliance on foreign components for spacecraft and satellites
• Limited Market Presence: India holds only 2.6% of the global space economy
• Policy & Legislation Delays: Indian Space Policy 2023 lacks a clear timeline
• Space Debris Management: Requires effective mitigation strategies
• Geopolitical Considerations: Artemis Accords position India strategically against China
• Competitive Edge: Innovation and cost-effective execution are crucial

Chandrayaan -4 Mission

Following Chandrayaan-3's success, ISRO is now focusing on Chandrayaan-4, a lunar sample-return mission. This ambitious project aims to soft-land on the Moon, collect lunar rock samples, and return them to Earth. If successful, India will join the U.S., Russia, and China in achieving this milestone.

Mission Strategy & Components

Chandrayaan-4 involves five distinct spacecraft components:

• Propulsion System: Transports the lander and ascender to the Moon
• Descender: Facilitates lunar landing and carries soil sampling equipment
• Ascender: Detaches after sample collection and lifts off from the Moon
• Transfer Module: Receives samples from the Ascender and moves them to the Re-entry Module
• Re-entry Module: Ensures safe return of lunar samples to Earth

Payload Details

• Lunar Propulsion Module: Transports lander and ascender to the Moon
• Lunar Lander: Touches down, carrying scientific instruments for sample collection
• Lunar Module Ascender: Detaches, ascends to lunar orbit, and prepares for docking
• Transfer Module: Moves samples from Ascender to Re-entry Module
• Re-entry Module: Safely returns lunar samples to Earth

Dual Rocket Launch Strategy

Chandrayaan-4 will use two different rockets:

• Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LMV-3): Carries propulsion, descender, and ascender modules
• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): Transports transfer and re-entry modules to lunar orbit

These rockets will launch on separate dates, with the earliest launch expected after 2028.

Advanced Technology & SPADEX Experiment

The mission’s success depends on successful docking between the Ascender and Transfer Module in lunar orbit. ISRO’s Space Docking Experiment (SPADEX) will test orbital rendezvous, docking, and formation flying, crucial for Chandrayaan-4.

Significance for India’s Space Program

• Global Leadership: Joins Russia, the US, and China in lunar soft landing capability
• Strategic Advancements: Supports refuelling, docking, and robotic space missions
• Scientific Contributions: Confirms water ice presence, validates lunar history, and detects subsurface water ice
• Defence & Aerospace Insights: Enhances missile defense and reusable launch vehicle technology
• Economic & Commercial Growth: Boosts space tourism, disaster management, and infrastructure monitoring

Mission Status & Future Prospects

• ISRO has finalised Chandrayaan 4’s design, with a tentative launch in 2027
• The mission is more complex than Chandrayaan-3, requiring two space docking operations
• Government approval is pending
• Chandrayaan-5’s design is complete, but its objectives and timeline remain undisclosed

Way Forward for India’s Space Sector

1. Greater Investment: It is imperative to go beyond the cheap engineering to bigger investments and bold missions. The science community presses to increase budgetary allocations to the advanced space programs.
2. Human Spaceflight: India needs to develop expertise in the human spaceflight area, such as training astronauts and the infrastructure required to support human spaceflight.
3. Private Sector Participation: The Space industry in India will be consistent with trends in the rest of the world by encouraging the participation of the private sector, which will lead to commercialisation and innovation.
4. Geopolitical Strategy: Space competition is bound to increase, and India will have to tactically negotiate international discussions, especially concerning China and other space-dominating nations.
5. Sound Legal Regime: An elaborate domestic and international legal framework is needed to govern and validate space commerce and space governance reforms.
6. Reinvigorating International Cooperation: The renewal of international cooperation will make outer space a common area of shared advancement in space exploration.
7. Publicity and Populace Support: The government must undertake publicity and education programs that will foster the rise of excitement and approval of the expanding space program in India.

Conclusion

The Chandrayaan program has helped India in many ways in terms of lunar exploration, scientific discoveries, as well as technological advances.

1. The confirmation of the existence of water molecules on the Moon by Chandrayaan-1 (2008) was one of the major milestones in planetary science.
2. More recently, Chandrayaan-2 (2019) also targeted a soft landing, although the lander component of the mission failed, the orbiter is still functional, taking important measurements of the moon.
3. Chandrayaan-3 (2023) created history as the first successful soft landing by India and successful arrival at the south pole of the Moon, and validation of important elemental compositions.
4. Chandrayaan-4 (Planned) will retrieve lunar samples, which will demonstrate the Indian Space Research Organisation's (ISRO) competence in sample-return missions, an essential milestone in further space exploration.

Collectively, the missions have established India as a force to reckon with in space science research across the world, with characteristics of scientific creativity, engineering capabilities, and strategic thinking. Indian lunar exploration is exciting, and Chandrayaan will open the door to interplanetary missions, space sustainability, and sophisticated aerospace technologies.