Vedic Age - Origin, Vedic Literature, Geography, Administration, Economy, Social Life, Religion & More

Vedic age is believed to be the period between 1500 to 600 BCE. The primary reconstruction has been made from the Vedic text. It is the next major civilization in India after the Indus Valley civilization. 

The topic of the Vedic age is important from the perspective of the UPSC IAS Examination, and it is first under the general Studies paper 1, particularly under the History section. 

In this article, we shall discuss in detail the Vedic age, the major theory associated with the arrival of the Aryans, the geography of the Vedic age, its political structure, society, economy, religion, and Vedic Literature.

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About Vedic Age

The Vedic text forms the primary source of information for the reconstruction of the Vedic age. This information has been supplemented through archaeological materials. The Vedic texts are believed to be composed by the Indo-Aryans. Indo-Aryans refer to a Sab group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. They describe themselves as Arya, etymologically derived from “Ar”, meaning to cultivate.

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Origin of Vedic Age

The early Vedic age is historically recognized as occurring during the latter half of the second millennium BCE. Following the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan people migrated into north-western India and settled in the northern Indus Valley region. These Indo-Aryans were a distinct subgroup that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes during the Andronovo horizon, prior to the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated from the Sintashta culture, which gave rise to the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The migration of the Indo-Aryans took place through the adjacent Bactria-Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan) towards northwest India. This was followed by the emergence of the Iranian Yaz culture around 1500 BCE and subsequent migrations of Iranians into Iran around 800 BCE.

Vedic Literature

The Vedic texts are classified into two parts, namely, Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti

• Shrutis are the text that is heard or is a product of Godly revelation to the sages while they were in meditation.
• The Shruti includes the four Vedas and the Samhitas.

Smriti

• Smriti are those that are recollected by normal humans.
• Smriti includes 6 Vedangas, four Upvedas, and the commentaries on the Vedas.

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Vedas

The below mentioned are the 4 major vedas:

Rig Veda

• The Rig Veda is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of the early Vedic people in India.
• Its text consists of 1028 hymns, which are then divided into 10 mandalas.
• Mandalas 2-7 form the oldest part of the Rigveda Samhita and are called family books as they are prescribed to families of the Rishis.
• Mandala 8 contains hymns dedicated to various gods
• The upveda of Rig Veda is Ayurveda
• The Brahmana associated with Rig Veda is Aiteraya.

Sam Veda

• The Sam Veda is a collection of verses drawn from the Rig Veda.
• It contains the famous Dhrupad Raga, which was the latest sung by Tansen.
• Its upveda is Gandharva Veda
• The Brahmana associated with it is Sadavimsha.

Yajurveda

• It deals with the procedure for the performance of the sacrifices.
• It is further subdivided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda
• Shukla Yajurveda: it contains only the mantras. It contains madhyandina and recensions.
• Krishna Yajurveda: It contains the mantras as well as prose explanations and commentary
• The upveda of Yajurveda is Dhanur Veda.
• The Brahmana associated with it is Gopatha.

Atharva Veda

• The Atharva Veda is distinct from the other three Vedas in that it concentrates on everyday magic spells used to ward off bad spirits, danger, chants, hymns, prayers, weddings, and funerals.
• The name “Atharva” comes from the priest Atharvan, who was a religious innovator and healer.
• The Atharva Veda was the last among the Vedas to be composed.
• There are 5687 mantras included in 20 chapters of this Veda.

Vedangas

Vedangas literally mean the “Limb of the Vedas”. They are considered to be of human origin and written in the form of the sutras. The six Vedangas are as follows:

• Shiksha (Phonetics)
• Kalpa (Ritualistic science)
• Jyotisha (Astronomy)
• Vyakaran (grammar)
• Nirukta (Etymology)
• Chhanda (Metrics)

Upanishads

• They indicate knowledge that was acquired by sitting close to the teacher.
• They are also known as Vedanta.
• There are 108 Upanishads, of which 13 are the most prominent.
• They introduced the concept of Atma and Brahman.
• According to them, the Brahman is the underlying substance of the universe and is an unchanging absolute being.
• The Upanishads are mainly philosophical in nature and speak of the highest knowledge.
• Satyamev Jayate is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
• Chandogya Upanishad refers to the first three Ashram and discusses the forms of marriage.

Puranas

• The word literally means ancient or old.
• The Puranas are believed to be composed by Ved Vyas.
• They treat various topics concerning religious development that took place around the 5th and 6th centuries.
• The Puranas are subdivided into 18 Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas.
• They are regarded as post-Vedic texts.
• It discusses five subjects in the time span of four ages. They are:
  • Sarga – the primary creation of the universe.
  • Pratisarga – recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
  • Manvantaras – the reigns of the various Manus.
  • Vamsha – the genealogy of gods and rishis.
  • Vamshanucharita (Royal lineage) – the history of Solar (Suryavanshis) and Lunar (Chandravanshis) dynasties.

Dharmashastra

• Dharma Shastra is a text about the morality and religious duty.
• Dharmshastra refers to the fulfilment of purushastra such as Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.
• They are subdivided into Dharma sutras and Smritis.

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About the Early Vedic period

Geography

• The early Aryans were located in and around the areas surrounding Indus and its tributaries. This area is called the Sapt-Sindhu region ( the land of seven rivers).
• Also, it extends around The Lost Saraswati River, the area which is represented by the present Ghaggar River in Rajasthan.
• In this phase, there was no reference to the sea. No mention was made of the Himalayas and the Ganges.

Administration of Early Vedic Age

• There were instances of monarchy, but the office of the chief was not hereditary.
• The chief was referred to as the gopati or Gopa.
• No doctrine of divinity was associated with the kingship.
• There are instances of election by the tribal assembly, which was referred to as the Samiti.
• The Rajan was responsible for protecting the Jana and the cattle from the enemies and offering prayers to God on behalf of the Jana.
• The Jana often fought with the Panis, who used to hide the cattle of Jana in the forest. To get back their cattle, Indra, the Vedic God, Was invoked, and Battles such as the Gavisthi were fought.
• Popular bodies like the Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, and Gana assisted the Rajan.
• The sabha had few chiefs, while the samiti was a larger body. Vidhata was the oldest in the body.
• The place where the cattle were kept was called “Gaun,” and the quest for cows was called Gavishthi.
• The early Vedic society had a patrilineal system.
• The head of the family was called Kula.
• The administration of the Rig Society consisted of the following-
  • Purohit: He was concerned with performing their ritualistic services and received Dakshina and Dana.
  • Sanani: He was the leader of the Army.
  • Vrajapati: He was concerned with controlling the territory.
  • Gramini: the gramini was the leader of the village and the fighting unit.
• The Jana was further divided into Vis, which was divided into many Kul or Kutumb.
• The Kutumb had “Griha” as its unit and Kulapa as its head, while Grihapati headed the Griha.
• A group of Kula made a gram, and a gramini headed the gram.

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Economy

• In this period, the society was pastoral, and Agriculture was the secondary occupation of the people.
• The main wealth was cattle.
• Agriculture was carried on only for consumption purposes. There is a mention of wooden ploughshare and the Rig Veda.
• The most common name of the grain was Yava.
• Bali was a voluntary gift from the producers to Rajan.
• No tax was imposed, nor was any treasury maintained.
• There is no mention of currency or coins; however, a gold piece called Nishika finds mention.
• The barter system was prevalent during this period, and cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.
• Copper tools are reported from the states of Punjab and Haryana. Iron was not known to them.
• The most common name used for any metal was Ayas.
• Horses played a significant role in the life of the early Vedic period.
• The economic activities prevalent were hunting, carpentry, weaving, metal smeltery, etc.

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Social Life

Division of the society

• Society was divided into Aryans and Aryans. The non-areas were called the Dasas and Dasyus. The Aryans were soft towards Dasas and hostile toward the Dasyus.
• The society was divided in terms of the Clan.
• Even the Rajans and the Purohit were part of the Clan network.

Varna System

• Varna was the basis of differentiation between the Vedic and the non-Vedic people.
• Therefore, the Rigvedic society cannot be termed egalitarian, as social stratification was based on the division of labour and gender. However, this period did not completely develop the fourfold Varna order and the rigid caste system.
• Rigvedic people were familiar with the Institution of slavery. These slaves were used for domestic purposes and not for agriculture.

Social Mobility

During this period, there were instances of mobility where people could change their profession. Thus, there was an absence of a strict social hierarchy.

Position of Women

• The women held important positions and were educated.
• They had access to the assembly Sabha and Samiti.
• Women had the right to choose their husbands.
• There was no incidence of Sati or Purdah system.

Institution of Marriage

• The early Vedic people practised monogamous marriage; however, practices like polygamy and polyandry also existed.
• Levirate (the practice of marrying the younger brother on the death of the husband) also existed.
• Niyoga marriage (was a variant of widow marriage in which the childless widow was temporarily married to the husband’s brother to produce children).

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Religion

• There was an absence of temple or idol worship during this time.
• Instead, the people followed primitive animism and worshipped natural forces like wind, rain, and water.
• They practised simple, concise, and less formalized worship and made sacrifices for the well-being of their community and livestock.
• The primary aim of their worship was to promote population growth, safeguard their cattle, ensure the birth of male children, and protect against diseases.
• The rituals were conducted by the households themselves, without the involvement of priests.
• The chanting of mantras held significant importance in these rituals.
• Male gods
• Indra, the God of thunder
• Agni, the God of Fire
• Varuna, the god of water
• Soma, the god of plants
• Yama, the god of death
• Pushan, the god of jungle parts and cattle
• Vishnu benevolent God
• Ashwini, the God of War and Fertility
• Female God
  • Savitri solar deity
  • Aditi, goddess of eternity
  • Prithvi, goddess of Earth
  • Nirrti, Goddess of death
  • Usha, goddess of Dawn

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About the Later Vedic Period

Geography

• In the later period, the Aryans moved to the Eastern areas with the help of fire and iron tools.
• They inhabited the Guru Panchala region (the Indo-Gangetic divided and the upper Ganga valley).
• During this phase, they acquired knowledge of the eastern and the Western sea, i.e., the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, and the Narmada and Vindhya mountains.

Administration Of the Later Vedic Age

• In the later Vedic period, the Jana evolved into janapadas.
• Frequent battles were fought between these janapadas for territory.
• During this phase, the authority of the Rajan became more evident, and he was supported by a support staff called Ratnin, who were the 12 jewels of the king.
• Here, the chiefship became hereditary.
• There was no presence of a standing Army.
• The Rajan performed various sacrifices like the Rajsuya, Vajpeya, and Ashwamedha to become a ruler of all directions.
• Rajan assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat, and Virat.
• The term rashtra, which indicated territory, appeared first in this period.
• Dependence on an assembly like Sabha and Samiti was reduced. Vidhata completely disappeared in this Phase.
• Women were now not allowed to attend these assemblies.

Economy

• Agriculture of multiple crops began, and cattle rearing continued. This put a limitation on the Nomadic nature.
• Crops like wheat, Barley rice, and moong urad were cultivated.
• Iron was discovered in the period, and it was used for fire for clearing forests for agricultural purposes.
• An increased surplus led to taxes like Bali and Bhaga customary contributions to the king’s treasury.
• The treasurer was called Samgrahitri and Bhagdukha, who collected the taxes.
• Various arts and crafts like smelting, carpentry, Jewellery making, dying, and pottery making also find mention in this period.

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Social Life

Division of the Society

• The society was divided in terms of 4 fold division of the society based on the caste system.
• Practices of caste exogamy and rigid social hierarchy developed.
• There were increased practices of sacrifices, which added to the power of the Brahmanas.

Varna System

• The Varna system became more distinct in this period
• The system became more on the basis of birth and less on occupational terms.
• The Varnashrama Dharma society showcased the four stages of life.

Social Mobility

Instances of mobility were restricted in this period.

Position of Women

• Women were increasingly confined to household chores and subordinate positions.
• They were not permitted to attend public assemblies like the Sabha and the Samiti
• There were instances of the Sati system and Purdah.
• However, despite the derogatory position of women, there were scholars like Gargi, Maitri, and Katyayani.

Institution of Marriage

• Child marriage became more prominent in this period.
• The system of gotra was institutionalized.
• Marriage between Persons of the same gotra was prohibited
• There is a mention of Chandrayana Penance for men marrying women of the same gotra.

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Religion

• Idol worship gained prominence during this era, marking a shift in religious practices.
• Sacrifices took on a more elaborate and significant role in the society.
• Magic and omens became intertwined with social and religious life.
• The Brahmins rose in importance and maintained their position of superiority.
• Large-scale yajnas, such as the Ashwamedha, were performed to assert authority over chiefs and their territories.
• The significance of male gods, particularly Indra and Agni, diminished.
• Prajapati, the god of creation, emerged as the supreme deity.
• There was a division among the deities, with Pushan, the god of cattle, being associated with the Shudra class.

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